Central Financial Management Activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Central Financial Management Activities - Essay Example It is not uncommon for an organization to employ its directors and/or its chairperson when it comes to judgment in the financial management process. Judgment must be borne on issues of strategy, performance, and resources, including key appointments and standards of conduct. Organizations may also employ non-executive directors for the judicial process, as an independent judgment that is free from bias is superior (Mcmenamin 1999). It is the task of the judgment personnel to evaluate what has taken place in relation to how the financial picture of an organization can be improved. The judges in the financial management process have the capacity to do away with certain decisions and thereby begin a new financial year with better prospects. Most Fortune 500-size firms use sophisticated mathematical and statistically-based methods in the financial management of inventory. A firm’s financial managers concentrate on the allocation and efficient management of financial resources in various inventory categories, for example, raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods. A firm’s production and inventory managers, on the other hand, are more interested in the efficient production of different finished goods items, and therefore pay close attention to employee production schedules, long production runs, and the storage of finished goods. It is not infrequent for a conflict of interest to arise between these two branches of management. The top management must intervene in this case to determine the proper investment of financial resources in the production function. Now a great deal of analysis enters the picture. For this, all firms must have data necessary to make precise calculations of cost-convenience -profit trade-offs (Grablowsky 1984).

American Industrial Revolution Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Essay

American Industrial Revolution Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania - Essay Example These factors all allowed Pittsburgh to become the major American city contributing to the Industrial Revolution, and Pittsburgh's connections with the rest of the United States helped to spawn the Industrial Revolution in other parts of the country. In order to understand why Pittsburgh was such a key player in America's Industrial Revolution, one must trace the city's boom back to the start of the Industrial Revolution within the city's own boundaries. The start of the Industrial Revolution in Pittsburgh can be traced all the way back to the start of the nineteenth century. The low cost of coke, and iron, alongside the large amount of coal found near Pittsburgh contributed to the development of the iron industry within the city, and later, within America (Bernal, 1970, p. 83). Most of the iron production during this time period used charcoal as a source of fuel. However, the discovery of the abundance of minerals around Pittsburgh introduced a new and better way to produce iron. This occurred mainly because coal can create a higher temperature, and is thus more effective for burning in comparison to charcoal. Furthermore, the coal found outside of Pittsburgh was excellent in quality, and was vary abundant (Derry and Williams, 1993, p. 94). For example, coal seams were discovered to be at least four to ten feet in thickness outside the city, and when compared to London, Pittsburgh's coal turned out to be of better quality, more abundant, and most importantly, more profitable. The early production of iron nails, balls, and different farm tools began to occur, and eventually these products were widely available to the public. In 1812, Pittsburgh developed the first iron rolling mill, using the development of the steam engine. This first mill spawned many other mills using steam engine power, and the city grew as a result (Hannegan, 2000, p. 23). By 1815, Pittsburgh could be called the biggest city in the east. This advancement in iron technology in the city opened the door to allowing Pittsburgh to become a major city within the Industrial Revolution. Obviously having better quality coal than London, which was at the heart of the Western Industrial Revolution, is an early indicator of how important Pittsbur gh was becoming to the rest of the United States. The coal developments in Pittsburgh inspired the rest of the United States to revise its approach to goal development. After the development of the iron mills came the development of glass factories, pottery mills, breweries, grist mills, nail mills, steam engine factories, cotton factors, and printing offices. The glass factories were yet another important development to the Industrial Revolution and the rest of the United States. Not surprsingly, plate glass saw very limited residential use in the 1800's. In Boston some of the wealthiest people had begun to use polished plate glass instead of sheet glass in their front windows before 1850. In 1897 the Marsh Plate Glass Company developed a continuous lehr (oven) for annealing plate glass, reducing the carefully controlled cooling time from three days to three hours. Oldhousejournal online

Case Study Bodegas Torres Commerce Essay

Case Study Bodegas Torres Commerce Essay Bodegas Torres is a Spanish wine factory created in 1870 by two brothers, Jaime and Miguel Torres. The company gave priority to quality and innovation. After the two brothers died, it was the turn of Miguels son, Juan, to run the company. He started to product brandies which was the first innovation of the company. In 1932, Miguel, Juans son, succeeded to his father after his death. With the help of his wife Margarita, Miguel worked hard to reduce his lack of experience regarding wine. Since 1870, five generations of the Torres family were able to make a place among the wine world. The first modest operation, located near the Vilafrance Penedà ¨s appellation Penedà ¨s in Catalonia, has quickly made a name and reputation despite heavy events (phylloxera crisis, civil war). Subsequently, the Bodegua Torres took possession of other vineyards in the appellations of Conca de Barbera, Toro, Jumilla, Ribera del Duero, Priorat and more recently in Rioja. However, it was not until 1979 that Miguel Torres decides to acquire a small area of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹100 hectares in the Curico Valley in Chile. Descendant of Jaime Torres, so he moved between the valleys of Colchagua and Maule, south of Santiago, becoming the first investor in Chiles wine industry. Since then, the area has flourished and is now 445 hectares. Miguel Torres has also exported its wine to the United States, California, where he founded in 1986 Marimar Estates.. Marimar Torres, his sister , about her adventure in California where she managed the first Marimar Estate Vineyard in 1986. Over time, the small family business has turned into an empire, while still retaining its prestigious reputation and the exceptional quality of its products. Over the years, the company was rewarded at many times for its products like in 1979 (winner of the Great Wine Marathon) or in 1991 (gold medal received for the Milmanda Wine). Every year, the company gets a medal for one of its products. The most recent one is in 2011 (Gold medal received for the De Casta 2010 at Mondial du Rosà © 2011). The Strategy of the company The first strategy of the company was to sell high quality price at a high price because people associate quality with price. But over the years, the company tried to change this image and offered to its customers acceptable quality wine at a moderate price. It is obvious that Bodegas Torres is still producing high quality wine but you can find all the type of wine you want according to your budget. After having strengthen its position in Spain, the company went abroad and started to export its products in several countries. Products are characterized by a commitment to the family, the love of the vine and its fruit that has passed from generation to generation to become one of the most important wineries, which meant it became a company export represented in more than 140 countries. The first exports of the company date back to the 40s, and have continued to grow since then. The group closed the year 2010 with a C. A. EUR 205 million, an increase of 11.5% compared to 2009. This resu lt is mainly due to the increase in exports, which ranks the top wine producers exporting Spanish sparkling wine not alone in AOC. Torres exports represent 72% of sales. The latter increased to countries such as Finland, Canada, Norway and Russia. But the real breakthrough for the group occurred in China. After 30 years of commercial, wine sales to that country rose 40% in 2010. The group became the first company that distributes wine directly. China Torres charged in the last year 16.16 million EUR. As an example, the group sold under their brand of wine Mas La Plana, 1000 cases of 12 bottles in China, with a production of 10,000 cases. In 1997, the company signed for the establishment of a Joint-Venture in China with the   Zhangjiakou Great Wall Torres Winery Co. Ltd. Torres group is also known for its innovations. The alcohol-free wine is one of its flagship products that perfectly matches the new fashion market for aesthetic and health, according to the Chairman of the group. The research department of the company is very active and successful. The company always tries to find better ways of production or new products that may be a good fit for new customers. The structure of the company The company Bodegas Torres has always tried to change its structure according to the market, the trend and changing environment. Managers always thought that each department had to be run by an expert in his area. Many of the executives have started their career within the company which allow them to acquire a good experience of the products and the market. But the competition of the market is fierce and the company had to hire a more professional staff with university degrees. In order to adapt its management strategy, the company was restructured in 1991 with the aim of setting up responsibilities and level of hierarchy. But according to employees and executives, this restructuration was too confusing. After a meeting with all the executives, the company found out that there was a lack of communication between several departments and that some responsibilities were not clearly defined. To fix the situation, Bodegas Torres defined very clearly the different department which are the following ones: The production department: wine production and in charge of the vineyard. The wine and the brandy are divided by sections of the production process. Each member of the team has a clear task. The administrative and financial department: divided into smaller divisions like accounting, treasury and management control, this department is responsible for the control of investments, payments and more. The human resources department: very important for the company, this department is in charge of training as well as payroll. This department aims at keeping the employee updated to new processes or more. The organization and system department: created in 1993, this department has a role of control regarding processes and internal auditing. The marketing department: divided into smaller divisions like sales, exports and public relations, this department is taking care of the companys customers wherever they are in the world. We can easily say that the company has been able to define a clear structure in order to ensure a better communication between departments. The corporate culture The company benefits from a strong corporate culture based on family values and has been transmitted from generation to generation and is very important for the well-being of the company. The corporate culture of the company can be summarize in several points: A strong history: the company has been created in 1870 and is producing wine since then. So it has been more than two centuries that the Torres family has been working on the same products. Each member of the family has been an executive or a manager. Bodegas Torres went through many difficulties like the civil war but the company is still operating. A culture of authenticity: like we said in the previous point, the company produces wine for the past two centuries. They can be called expert in wine producing. They developed their own process of production and care about the quality of their products. Everyone in the company share values of knowledge and quality. The family experience: the Torres family is running the company since its creation. The management is based on these values. Everything is done to keep the family business on. Even if the company sets up objectives, communication and respect are two values that workers have to remember each day. The social responsibility: respecting the environment is very important especially because their raw materials are seeds and earth. The company has developed its own label in order to show its customers that the family cares about the environment as well as its employees. Bodegas key challenges This part of the paper is about identifying the challenges or problems that the company may or will face in the future. With the increasing globalization of economic activities and the introduction of the European single market for the free movement of goods and services, employees and shareholders, business leaders, whether multinationals or exporters are increasingly faced with the demands of international management, which is necessarily accompanied intercultural management. Multicultural Management and diversity Bodegas Torres knows very well the notion of exportation and deals with it in a very efficient way. Usually speaking, when a company wants to develop its international business, it is often necessary to relocate its production, management and marketing. To do this, the company develops foreign subsidiaries, and the problem of cultural differences appear between the employees of the subsidiary, which are mostly native and parent, which is managed by nationals. The main difficulty encountered by these multinational companies is the harmonization of the various business practices. A subsidiary established abroad together different personalities, different language. It is essential to understand how management organizes in a subsidiary. The company has an entity in California, in China and in Chile which implies specificities in terms of values. In order to identify the differences, we will use the Hofstede model based of 4 criteria which are: Power Distance: When it is high, it means, for H, the main characteristics following: the power is a social base, and the economic and social relations are marked by inequality and dependence. Individualism versus Collectivism: Individualism, in contrast to the sense of community is marked by the importance of personal responsibility, individual initiative and respect for privacy, strictly distinguished professional life. Individual interests are privileged in the functioning of organizations. Masculinity versus Femininity: Masculinity is characterized by the following: assertiveness, lack of modesty, the emphasis on success, money and external image, ambition and the desire for personal fulfillment. In opposition, femininity means in particular the emphasis on the relational harmony, rather than assertiveness: femininity is the search for consensus and harmony, the importance of human relationships. Uncertainty Avoidance: It means the willingness to risk guarantee, which can be expressed by the elements following: anxiety of the future, fear of change and difference, preference for stable and rigid structures, and possibly for the gerontocracy, the concern establish procedures clear, precise and detailed to avoid hazards. This criteria will be applied to Spain, United States and China in order to better understand the cultural differences which may help us to highlight management threats but also opportunities. Spain Power Distance: with a score of 57 points, the power distance is relatively high. It mean that the hierarchy is respected by workers and that it is permitted to get advantages if you have a high position. It is important for employees to get feedback from their boss in order to keep their motivation high. Individualism versus collectivism: with a score of 51 points, it means that, contrary to its European colleagues, Spain is based on collectivism. Teamwork is really important for Spanish workers and almost natural. It is easier for them to be motivated when they work with other people as a team. Masculinity versus femininity: the score of 42 points means that companies and employees are not motivated by competition, achievement and success  [1]  . Children are taught to care about others and to always search for a consensus. It is important for Spanish managers to get feedback from its subordinates in order to make decisions and to improve the work environment. Uncertainty avoidance: the score of 86 means that the country doesnt like uncertainty. People like to have rules, and the changes lead to stress. It is important for Spanish people to respect rules because they work as a reference for every type of situation. United States of America Power Distance: with a score of 40 which can be considered as  «Ã‚  low  Ã‚ », United States is based on equal rights and freedom. Unlike Europe, the hierachy is the the same. Even if managers are weel-defined in the organization, they are always accessible. Feedbacks from bother managers and employees are important. Individualism versus collectivism: with a high score of 91, we can easily say that the United States is an individualist country. It means that people have to work for themselves, care for themselves and also for relatives. There is no we in the American society but mainly I. In business, employees have to be reliable and autonomous. Masculinity versus femininity: with a score of 62, the country can be seen as masculine. The main value that is taught in school and appreciated in business is always go for the best or always try your best. American people live to work because their life depend on it. Uncertainty avoidance: with a score of 46, we can say that American people are not afraid of changes and may consider them as challenges. American workers like new idea and are opened to changes in their work environment. China Power Distance: with a score of 80, we can say that in China, inequalities are acceptable. Also, the notion of hierarchy is very strong which imply an important respect of superiors. Everyone should stay at is place and there is no room for initiatives. Individualism versus collectivism: with a low score of 20, we can say that China is a strong collectivist country. People think a lot about others like colleagues or relatives and after they think about themselves. But the score also mean a weak commitment to the company they work for. Masculinity versus femininity: with a score of 66, we can say that China is a masculine society. Work and success is really important and many people may sacrifice their families to get advancement in their work. Uncertainty avoidance: with a low score of 30, Chinese people are used to uncertainty. One of the biggest one is the language which is full of ambiguities. Moreover, Chinese workers are very entrepreneurial which is a good asset for their country. Bodegas Torres has entities in these countries are will face difficulties in the management. It is difficult to deal with different employees expectations, rules and feelings. Managers have to adapt their management strategies in order to get the best of their employees. The relationship between the employees and the company has to be strong in order to be successful. Each entities must follow Bodegas Torres values but adjust its way of doing things to the country. Corporate culture and globalization As we said before, Bodegas Torres benefits from a strong corporate culture. Basically, a corporate culture can be defined as the specific elements that explain the basics of how an entity works. It is, in a sense, a by-product of national culture and therefore a set of valuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹, myths, rituals, taboos and symbols shared by the majority of employees. Corporate culture is a key variable to explain the daily life and the strategic choices made à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹by business. The key challenge for the company here is whether staying a family business or going global. A Family Business Bodegas Torres has always been a family business. In terms of ownership it means that there is a focus on the interest of the company which is owned by the family. People are really passionate for the company and want to work hard to make it more successful. It implies, obviously, a high level of motivation. As a family business, the knowledge and secret know-hows can be highlighted and promoted in order to keep the brand image strong. Being a family business also means that profits are re-invested in the company and not given to shareholders or other stakeholders. In terms of HR Management, we can say that a family business is focused on a good communication system and a higher level of motivation. Communication is very important and if people talk to the other as family members, it is easier to communication without fear of hurting someone or more. Moreover, people working for the family business have a better understanding of the background which generate a higher commitment. To finish with HR, a family business may answer several of the Maslows needs theory. Being a family business is also a benefit in terms of positioning. Bodegas Torres products are high quality and the brand image is strong because the family owns the vineyard. Over the years, the company won many awards and medals for its products and it may seem difficult for new employees to understand this culture. Regarding the finance, the situation of the company is good as it is and both in operating and financial activities. Moreover, expansion is compatible with a family management strategy. The company has all the key to keep its success up but there is also an opportunity to go global. Going Global There are a lot opportunities to go global for a business such as Bodegas Torres. If we analyze the strengths of the company we can see that its growth strategy was a success so far and that it financing situation in good. The company also created a marketing department which will allow the company to better understand the market and offer an appropriate answer to customers needs. In terms of opportunities, the wine market is changing. In 2011, the United States has become the largest consumer of wine in the world ahead of Italy and France, according to a study conducted for Vinexpo Asia Pacific, the exhibition of wine and spirits to be held from May 29 to 31 in Hong Kong. The United States is in first place in the volume consumed (28 million hectoliters to 311.3 million cases of 12 bottles), with an expected growth of around 10% between 2011 and 2015, according to the study conducted in partnership with ISWR the British cabinet. The market is changing a people tend to see wine in a different way and not as a French specificity anymore. The companys new structure enables an internationalization because other companies like competitors are working the same way. The efficiency is higher because all tasks and responsibilities are well defined. Moreover, the RD department is a competitive advantage that the company must use in order to launch new products on the market on a regular basis. Bodegas Torres is facing a choice that will affect its structure and future. The company has to analyze both opportunities in order to make the right decision. We can consider that both choices are opportunities. Intercultural Management and Motivation Motivation is the set of factors determining the action and behavior of an individual to achieve a goal or perform an activity. It is the combination of all the reasons conscious or unconscious, collective and individual, that encourage the individual to act in a team. This is one of the challenges of the managerial function. In our case, the problem is how to motivation people if they dont have the same drivers. It is important first to analyze the needs of employees wherever they are from. For that we can use the Maslows theory. It offers a systematic approach to the needs of the working man and prioritizes different levels in a pyramid. Maslow believed that human behavior is dictated by the needs, man is instinctive, biological and fundamental. Five groups of needs are distinguished: physiological needs, the need for safety, ,the need for social, the need for esteem, the need of self-actualization. According to the country, people will give a different priority to the needs. It is the role of managers to understand this dimension. Beside Maslows work, we can find that Herzberg also worked on the motivation. He connects the motivation and satisfaction at work and uses a common assumption in all theories of need: the unfulfilled need is motivation. Herzberg distinguish two kinds of needs: those that are common to all living beings and those that are specific to humans. Only the latter are a source of motivation, hygiene needs, as soon they are fulfilled they reduce dissatisfaction and are therefore more motivating. Some examples of hygiene needs would be supervision, inter-personal relations, money, status or security. According to this theory, Bodegas Torres should be design a specific management strategy for overseas in order to create a safe and good work environment. Another important point, which is common to all countries is how the work is rewarded. The same rewards do not seem to motivate the same way. Everyone has a clear idea of what constitutes a just reward for his work. It determines what is right by comparing it brings (qualification, effort, experience) and it receives (status, salary) that others provide and receive. When he feels inequality (more or less) between the contributions from its rewards and of those to whom he compares himself, he tries to reduce because it produces a feeling of frustration or guilt either. Every country has its own system of reward and managers should be careful to equity. For example in the united states which is an individualist society, the reward wont be the same as in Spain which is a collectivist country. Recommendations Regarding our analysis, we have few recommendations for Bodegas Torres in order to deal with the globalization and its effects. Analyzing every culture they work with. The Hofstede model is really useful to understand the different cultures around the world. Understanding a culture helps to understand people you work with. It is important to for managers to understand a culture so he can behave in a proper way and dont do any mistake that could lead to a conflict. People dont react the same way depending on the country and a new management strategy has to be designed in order to lead teams in an efficient way. Keeping the family business Many companies try to go global because they see opportunities of growth and reduced costs. But higher costs are not systemically bad. The family business of the Torres family is profitable and its financial situation is healthy contrary to many other firms who rely on debts. Moreover, the brand image which is highly appreciated and well-known will suffer from an over-internationalization. Creating a motivating work environment by analyzing needs in every country A motivating work environment is a competitive advantage over competitors. If employees are motivated and committed to the company, their work will be better and the company will benefit from it. In order to do so, managers and executives must analyze the needs of employees and try to link them to the companys objectives. Gathering people around ethic and values The better way to gather people is to make them share specific values or even a corporate culture. Employees must put their differences aside and focus on the common culture. The company may use the history of the Torres family as an example. Conclusion

Battle Of The Little Big Horn :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The journey of exploration to the western territories brought the white man many great things, but they did face some opposition. The US government made plans to explore the Black Hills, after hearing of the gold it contained. This was not an easy task. The Sioux, with strong force, were not giving up their sacred land easily. The only way to gain the territory of the Black Hills was to wage war against the Sioux. The Battle of the Little Big Horn was one battle that the US will never forget. General George Custer led an army of men to take out the Sioux, one of the battalions was completely wiped out including Custer. The Sioux were very strong, but US had a lot more power and technology. Why did we get massacred? This question has been a mystery to many people throughout the years. Sergeant Windolph, of Benteen’s cavalry, and John F. Finerty, from General Crooks cavalry, bring us some personal accounts and memories of this tragedy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many factors that did affect the outcome of this battle. George Custer could be to blame for such a tragedy. He did make the critical decisions that brought his soldiers down. Custer’s personal ambition got the best of him. Windolph explains, â€Å"Custer was partially disgraced because General Terry had superseded him in command of the expedition† (Windolph 174). He felt that he should have received control over the entire expedition. Custer made no secret of his intention to cut loose from Terry. General Terry, General Gibbon, and General Custer were all to meet on June 26, at the Rosebud, and plan their attack. But as soon as Custer struck the trail of the Indians he followed it till he came upon the Indian village on June 25. He disobeyed Terry’s orders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While Terry and Gibbon were meeting in Rosebud, Custer was already dividing his regiment into three separate battalions. Sergeant Windolph, from Reno’s battalion, recalls: The enemy increased so greatly in numbers that we were forced into the timber for protection, but I firmly believe that if, at that moment, all our companies had been together the Indians would have been driven from their village (Windolph 166). If Custer had not separated his troops into three battalions, they might have left victorious over the Sioux. Windolph also states that â€Å"The Indians also stated that the separate detachments made their victory over the troops more certain† (Windolph 161).

Death in Venice and Cat and Mouse Essay

Thesis: The contradiction between one’s public image and unadulterated feelings or desires is a dominant theme in Death in Venice and Cat and Mouse. Both use minor characters to help represent this theme as well as foreshadowing plot. Minor characters may often be overlooked in literature as the reader’s attention is focused on the major characters. However, minor characters are, in fact, an important contributor to theme and plot. On comparing Death in Venice and Cat and Mouse, a similar theme arises; the struggle in human nature between what is conveyed on the surface and what is happening beneath. The minor characters represent this struggle in the major characters, while foreshadowing their fate. In Thomas Mann’s novella, the reader is invited to witness Aschenbach’s struggle with admitting his love for Tadzio, while maintaining his respectable reputation. When examining the old man on the boat and the poor singing quartet, it is clear that the appearance and manner of the minor characters are very similar. They portray Aschenbach’s inner torment and foreshadow his tragic fall from grace. The minor characters in Gà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nter Grass’s novel represent somewhat differently Mahlke’s actions (participating in the war) conflicting with his inner beliefs. The undermining of the priest and the behaviour of Mahlke towards the lieutenant commander symbolize Mahlke’s struggle and foreshadow his joining the military. Mann’s characters are clearly portrayed as grotesque relating to Aschenbach’s tragic fall from grace, while Grass’s characters are respectable men in society representing his true feelings about the war. The struggle and fate of the Aschenbach personified in the minor characters is arguably more evident in Death in Venice simply because there is one protagonist. Nevertheless, both novel and novella effectively use the minor characters to contribute to this theme and foreshadow plot. In the beginning of chapter three in Death in Venice, Aschenbach is faced with his first unsettling encounter when he meets the old man on the vaperetto. This minor character represents Aschenbach’s hidden desires beginning to expose because of the conflict with youth and age. A description of the old man is given on page 211. â€Å"The company on the upper deck consisted of a group of young men†¦chattering, laughing†¦One of the party, who wore a light yellow summer suit of extravagant cut, a scarlet necktie and a rakishly Panama hat, was the most conspicuous of them all in his shrill hilarity. But, as soon as Aschenbach took a slightly closer look†¦his youth was false. He was old, there was no mistaking it. There were wrinkles round his eyes and mouth. His cheeks’ faint carmine rouge, the brown hair†¦was a wig, his neck was flaccid and scrawny†¦his yellowish full complement of teeth†¦was a cheap artificial set, and his hands with signet rings on both index fingers were those of an old man.† (pg. 211) This quote signifies the truth (the man’s real age) trying to be disguised through make-up, flashy attire, artificial teeth, and young company. Aschenbach’s own struggle for admitting his love for Tadzio and concealing it is being introduced. The old man tries to mask the reality of his age similarly to Aschenbach failing to recognise his true feelings for Tadzio. Aschenbach must deny his inner desires, and hide them from the public eye, as he is a venerated writer. More importantly the grotesqueness in the old man’s forgery of his age foreshadows Aschenbach’s tragic fall from grace. The minor character is said to be â€Å"flaccid† and â€Å"scrawny† indicative of frailty much like Aschenbach’s impending state that consumes him and brings him to his tragic death. Disguising the truth can also be seen in Cat and Mouse through the priest, Father Gusewski. It can be argued that he takes advantage of Pilenz by exploiting his spiritual position. For example, on page 123 Pilenz describes the priest’s occasional â€Å"wanderings of his hands†¦down [Pilenz’s] back†¦to the waist of [Pilenz’s] gym shorts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and Father Gusewski uses the power of his spiritual position to defend his behaviour when he says that it was Pilenz’s â€Å"catholic soul he was looking for†. The priest’s inner desires are concealed through his position much like Aschenbach’s are through his. Mahlke’s conflict is in his spiritual inner self conflicting with the inevitably of joining the war. Eventually, he conforms to society and ignores his true opinions of the war. Perhaps, the undermining of the priest foreshadows Mahlke’s efforts to ridicule the lieutenant when Mahlke steals the medal. Also on page 123, the narrator discusses the priest’s attempts at changing his name to sound more Germanic. The priest is in a way complying with the war similarly to Mahlke. Perhaps, the priest’s actions foreshadow Mahlke’s surrender of his faith when he temporarily joins the military. Similarly, the lead singer in the â€Å"beggar virtuoso† lies to Aschenbach when he conceals the truth about the cholera epidemic. The arrival of Aschenbach’s death is once again stressed by the appearance and manner of the minor character. However, there is a development in the grotesqueness of the character, perhaps, demonstrating a progression in Aschenbach’s fall from grace. Words such as â€Å"savagely†, â€Å"grimacing†, â€Å"grotesque†, and â€Å"stench† infer a more sinister aura to the minor characters. The alliteration simply emphasises the filth of the lead singer. This development further depicts the extent of Aschenbach’s inner torment surfacing. Also, with the juxtaposition of opposite societies, the reader is made aware of the conflict between Aschenbach’s inner desires and his image for the public. A hint of sarcasm underlines the singer’s response to Aschenbach’s question about the disinfec tions. The many short, repeated questions and exclamation points seem over-enthusiastic as if the singer is laughing inside and mocking Aschenbach. â€Å"A sickness? But what sickness? Is the sirocco sickness? Is our police a sickness†¦? The signore is having a little joke! A sickness! Certainly not signore!† (pg. 254) Then the singer’s laughing that followed is described as â€Å"shrieking; he pointed his finger up at the guests, as if that laughing company above him were the most comical thing in the world† (pg. 254). Perhaps, the laugh is allegorical of Aschenbach’s opinions of his love for Tadzio. Maybe, Aschenbach is ashamed of his feelings, and feels he is being exposed. The laugh may also be directed towards the visitors and their ignorance of the cholera epidemic. Hence, conveying the future, deadly prospects of the guests and especially Aschenbach’s. Mahlke’s reaction to the lieutenant is similar to that of Aschenbach’s towards the singer. There is an atmosphere of discomfort, exposure, and conflict during the lieutenant commander’s visit on pages 88 through 96. â€Å"Mahlke hadn’t wanted to attend†¦Mahlke began to tremble before the lieutenant commander had even opened his mouth. Mahlke’s hands clutched Mahlke’s knees, but the trembling continued†¦Sudden movement of [the lieutenant’s head]†¦Mahlke trembled, feeling no doubt that he had been recognised, but he hadn’t†¦When [Pilenz] had turned around toward Mahlke, he was gone†¦the only reason why Mahlke had caught [Pilenz’s] attention†¦was that he didn’t join in the laughter†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pg. 88-96) Mahlke feels uncomfortable around the lieutenant as he trembles and does not laugh with the other boys. If the lieutenant delineates the war, then Mahlke’s attitude towards it is clearly that of someone opposing it. Juxtaposing the hero and the anti-hero represents Mahlke’s inner struggle. He cannot avoid joining the military, yet it goes against his inner beliefs. Mahlke must conform to society and conceal his real opinions much like Aschenbach does his. Mahlke’s dissidence with the war efforts is evident again in his attempt to steal the lieutenant’s medal. This foreshadows Mahlke’s accordance with the military as he has broken the law, and positions himself closer to the lieutenant who is symbolic of the war. In both texts, the minor characters embody the struggle of the major characters, while signifying their fate. The minor characters are, in effect, literary motifs used to symbolize theme and plot. In Death in Venice, Aschenbach must appease his love for Tadzio, as it cannot be unmasked for the public’s eye. However, the famous writer succumbs to the power of his desire and stays in Venice despite the many warning signs, and he is led to his death. The same occurs in Cat and Mouse when Mahlke refuses to return to the military at the end of the novel. Mann and Grass carefully demonstrate the influence minor characters have on the text as a whole. Through characterising the minor characters and including them in the larger scheme of things, the importance of their role is made very clear.

Role of MIS: Employee Privacy Rights in the Workplace

The Information Age came upon us. As a concept, or stage of human history, it suggests a number of propositions. It implies that there is more information now than ever before an indisputable claim. The concept also implies that more people spend more time producing and using more information than ever before another indisputable assertion. In recent years and for the foreseeable future, organizations have been facing rapidly changing business environments which have challenged their executives (both Management Information Systems (MIS) and non-MIS) to handle issues such as downsizing, outsourcing, leveraged buyouts, strategic alliances, flexible manufacturing, just-in-time scheduling, globalization, business process re-engineering and total quality management. These environmental changes have placed demands on there MIS departments to support product innovation, new production techniques and changing organizational designs and to provide timely, high-quality information. The introduction of the Internet, e-mail, and other forms of electronic communication has revolutionized the workplace and given rise to new and improved business practices, including widespread access to information and instant communication among suppliers, customers, and employees. Management encourages employees to make full use of these new electronic tools to further the company's business objectives and that is where Management Information Systems are employed. However, increasing use of electronic communication has spawned new forms of employee misconduct. As management responds to employee abuse of electronic communications, the tension between management fights and employee privacy fights is heightened. Management wants to be free to fully monitor electronic communications to ensure that they are used for legitimate business purposes in the company's best interests. Employees seek to safeguard their privacy and want the freedom to use these new electronic tools for personal and business purposes. This ongoing struggle – between privacy and management fights – underlies the legal issues arising from employee e-mail and Internet use around the world. Data Analysis The extended theory founded on this core belief divides U.S. economic history into different eras, depending on the primary economic activity during the period (Duncan 1994). From colonial times until late in the 19th century, the American economy was agrarian. Then, roughly from the dawn of the 20th century through the end of the Second World War, it was preeminently a manufacturing economy. Industry especially heavy industry was the motor that drove the entire economic engine. After World War II, the American economy increasingly came to be dominated by its service sector. By the mid-1950s, more than one-half of all U.S. employment was devoted to providing services rather than to fabricating goods (Duncan 1994). The Pre-Information Age business office was supported by the hierarchical managerial system to keep track of employees and the work they produced (Dmytrenko 1992). Office equipment included information producing tools, such as typewriters and adding machines. Most of the equipment was simple, manual in operation, bulky, and noisy. Clerical staff primarily used this equipment, as they were the appointed information processors of the time. Early efforts to improve office efficiency used industrial engineering techniques, employing time and motion studies to standardize the work tasks of office support staff, and maximize the workflow through effective office design. Information management was categorized as an intensely manual recordkeeping process (Dmytrenko 1992). Filing systems (alpha and/or numeric), and cross-referenced indexes were the prevailing records management techniques employed, and to be on the safe side, offices maintained multiple copies of the same document for back-up purposes. These practices resulted in increasing demands for office space dedicated to files. The Information Age is reshaping the office of the 2000s. One source of confusion is the fact that the movements from manufacturing to services, and then to information, were of a different character than in earlier transitions. In the first place, while the transition from an agricultural to a manufacturing-based economy was marked by a decline in the number of jobs in agriculture, there has been no such diminution in the number of manufacturing jobs after the shift to a service economy. Moreover, American manufacturing currently accounts for roughly the same percentage of U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as three decades ago (Duncan 1994). Changes are taking place in the organizational structure and operations of businesses. Identifying and handling key issues in the MIS is essential for executives to support and run their organizations efficiently and effectively. The investigation of the key issues by researchers serves to enhance the understanding of the concerns of executives and suggest relevant areas of investigation by management researchers. Employers are concerned that their employees are spending a considerable amount of time on the Internet, browsing and sending e-mails regarding subjects that are totally unrelated to their job duties during work hours. In addition to harming productivity, employee access to the Internet creates more opportunities for employees to engage in virtually unprotected speech that could create liability for the employees and their employers. Most worrisome is the possibility that computers are used to download pornography or materials offensive to minorities which may then be distributed around the office in electronic attachments or printed and viewed by groups of employees. Such conduct could in turn lead to harassment complaints by employees. The widespread and rapid distribution of offensive or discriminatory material can poison a work environment and may also give rise to criminal charges. The ability of employees to transfer company information via e-mail that does not have sufficient confidentiality protection, such as a nondisclosure agreement, to outsiders puts that information at risk of losing its status as a trade secret and puts the employer at a distinct disadvantage with the loss of information. Employers might wish to discipline or discharge employees who jeopardize company proprietary information. The Internet also contains content protected by copyright or other proprietary fights, opening up the potential for direct, vicarious, or contributory copyright infringement liability claims against employers should the information be downloaded and utilized without the proper authority. At common law, the employer is vicariously liable for torts committed by an employee in the course of his or her employment. Therefore, the doctrine attaches to the employer's responsibility for the tortuous conduct of the employee without the existence of fault on the part of the employer. However, this doctrine does not absolve the employee from liability for tortuous conduct, and the employer may, in fact, claim an indemnification against the employee for moneys paid to a third party due to vicarious responsibility. For these reasons, many employers have begun monitoring employees' use of e-mall and the Internet which raises issues related to the employee's fight to privacy and about the new privacy legislation. It is becoming more commonplace for inappropriate and illegal Internet usage to be the determining factor in employee discipline and dismissals in unionized settings. The only question to be determined now is whether the inappropriate e-mails and Internet usage are just cause for dismissal. Arbitrators weigh each fact situation to determine the extent of the disciplinary offense and the appropriateness of management responses in the context of the collective agreement. Although e-mail is likely included in the definition of â€Å"telecommunication,† the real issue lies in whether or not e-mail monitoring on a computer desktop or server falls within the definition of â€Å"intercept.† Due to the way that e-mail is transmitted, it is unlikely that it could be intercepted as defined in the Criminal Code. â€Å"Intercept† means interference between the place of origin and the place of destination of the communication (Rasky, 1998). E-mail is transmitted from one computer through (usually) two Internet Service Providers onto a network server, and once that is complete so is the transmission. Consequently, the e-mail is simply just waiting to be retrieved by the recipient from the network. As a result, an employer that views a message which has been sent and saved onto a company's server is not really intercepting the message within the meaning of the Criminal Code (Coon and Cocker, 2001). There is no definitive ruling on who owns the e-mail in the issue of e-mail sent or received by an employee via his or her employer's computer system. This could be argued in two ways. One view is that e-mail sent or received in this context is property of the employer, to which an employee maintains no reasonable expectation of privacy. Thus, a search of e-mail in the workplace is really nothing more than a search of an employer's property (Rasky, 1998, p. 221). A second perspective is to view sent or received e-mail as the property of the employee. Employers assign employees e-mail addresses and allow employees to have e-mail passwords. Thus, this approach suggests that employees have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their workplace e-mail (Mclsaac, 2000, p. 2-86). The courts to date have not specifically addressed the issue of e-mail privacy within the workplace, although it was held in R. v. Weir (1998) that an individual's home e-mail via the Internet â€Å"ought to carry a reasonable expectation of privacy.† Therefore, as Internet and e-mail monitoring becomes more commonplace in the workplace, the only deterrent to employers may be couched in terms of the new privacy legislation and the required consent that will be required of an employee when an employer wishes to monitor. The focus would then be shifted to one of the reasonableness of the substance of implementation of the consent and monitoring policy along with the various factors inherent in that implementation such as the notice given to the employee of the search policy, the clarity of the policy, and the fairness of the administration of the policy (McIsaac, 2000, p. 2-87). Conclusion The Information Age suggests that the role of information is more important in the economy than ever before, and that information is replacing some earlier â€Å"fuel† of the American economy (Duncan 1994). These days the primary problem for most organizations and their employees is not the shortage of data but being able to evaluate what is useful and what is not, where to find the good stuff, and then how to use it effectively. The rapidly increasing use of Internet and e-mail in the workplace has introduced complicated issues related to the areas of potential liability of employers arising from the improper use of the Internet and e-mail by employees, as well as creating numerous privacy issues which must soon be addressed by all employers – union and nonunion. If employers specify and disseminate clear and concise e-mail and Internet use policies, they will be able to significantly reduce the risk associated with employee misconduct in this area. Not only should the policies be clear and concise, but they should also be communicated to the employees in such a fashion that all employees understand the policy and the consequences of breaching that policy. Employers can be concerned that their investments and MIS tools are being misused by employees, but at the same time clear communication and respect for the fights of employees and their privacy will encourage a positive, healthy work environment along with a decreased risk for potential liability for all parties involved. We agree that the Canadian Courts and arbitrators will need to make a concerted effort to understand the new technology and the various problems that arise as a result of that technology and then strike a balance between employee fights to engage in concerted activities vs. employer property and entrepreneurial fights. References Coon, Kevin & Jonathan Cocker. (2001) Legal Issues of E-mail and Internet Access in the Workplace. Internet and E-Commerce Law in Canada 1. January 2001: 81-87 Duncan, Joseph W., (1994) The Information Age on Shaky Foundations, Challenge, 05775132, Jan/Feb94, Vol. 37, Issue 1 Mclsaac, Barbara. (2000). Law of Privacy in Canada. Scarborough: Carswell. Rasky, Holly L. (1998). Can an Employer Search the Contents of Its Employees' E-mail? 220 Advocates Quarterly 20: 221-28 Dmytrenko, April, L., (1992) The information age has arrived or `much ado about everything', Records Management Quarterly, 10502343, Oct92, Vol. 26, Issue 4          Case: R. v. Weir (1998) 213 A.R. 285 (Q.B.)      

OLD AND NEW essays

OLD AND NEW essays What do we usually think of when we hear the word computer? Well most of us seem to fret or run away when we hear that word but why? The computer is one of the best inventions that anyone has ever come up with, why our whole world is practically run by them. A computer is something that no one should take for granted or kicks to the curb just because one does not take the time to become computer literate. In the following paragraphs I will explain why it is so important to have computers in an educational facility than just a plain old typewriter. The personal computer today has dominated our culture so that the once ubiquitous typewriter has been rendered practically silent. The importance of computers in our lives today is almost an essential key part of the way our lifestyles have evolved. We have computers every where from a PC in our home to a computer chip in our car. There are so many places computer applications can be used but I would like to emphasize on how computers are used in work areas or school environment vs. a typewriter. The typewriter is still a great invention but seems to be being replaced by the high tech age of computers. Of course not all of us can afford the big bad computers with every option known to man but most of us can settle for something down to the ordinary level. And then there are some us who just rather stay with their good and ancient friend the typewriter. Computers are and will even soon evolve into something that none of us will every dream of, from running our appliances to even running our lives; assuming all of us can afford it! In the following paragraphs I will explain and show you why computers are a better choice than the old fashion typewriter. First I would like to talk about the differences between a computer and a typewriter. A typewriter does have a couple advantages for one its very easy to pack up and carry wherever you go but if you have a laptop then you can easily rever...

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One Who Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest essays The novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" had many important events with in its binding. These events helped the reader follow along with the story. It also made the story what it is. The characters also helped moved the story along. They were all very strong characters. In, "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", the main character is Randle P McMurphy. He sort of comes off as a New York tuff guy. In my opinion McMurphy is a hustler, considering his gambling and how he's always trying to manipulate other patients to his benefit. Chief Bromden is a six foot eight, half bread Indian. For years, Chief has fooled the staff and patients in the ward into thinking that he's deaf and dumb. Though it was by accident, McMurphy is the first person that Chief has spoken to in years. Throughout the book, Chief seems to open up to McMurphy Big Nurse is a picky and mean. On the outside, she's always smiling, but inside she's full of hate. The biggest reason she despises McMurphy is because he threatens her perfect little world. One important event is the vote held on the watching of the World Series. McMurphy had actually won the vote, but still wasn't able to watch the game. McMurphy didn't get to watch the game, but in a sense still won, This sense was that he still had influenced the patients to actually Another important event is the fishing trip. Big Nurse strongly disapproved the trip, and she showed it. She posted newspaper clippings of bad weather reports and tragedies at sea, right next to the sign up sheet for the trip. Despite the fear that some of the patients felt, they went The beginning of the party is somewhat important. It's shows how good of a manipulator McMurphy really is. Though Mr.Turkle knew he could get fired, McMurphy was able to talk him into letting Candy Girl and Sandy into the ward. ...

A Midsummer Nights Dream by William Shakespeare

William  · Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream is unique as there is a drama during the play. Shakespeare uses the character 's funny nature to describe the drama. Characters can be divided into four groups: the Athens Court (Duke, Hippolyte, Eggers, Philippines), the young lover (Helmer, the responder, Helena, Demetrius), the fairytale kingdom (Oberon, Titania, pack and small fairy) ); And workers (bottom, quince, flute, nose, star level, and perfect). William  · Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream Author: Midsummer Night's Dream Depending on William Shakespeare, I was born in Stratfort-upon-Avon (Stratfort Upon Avon) in 1564. After he attended Stratford School, he married Anne Hathaway in November, 1582. Five years later, they got their first daughter. For some reason, he went to London and became an actor play writer. At the beginning of his career, he was both an actor and a writer ... - William Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream as there is a drama in the play. Shakes peare uses the character 's funny nature to describe the drama. Characters can be divided into four groups: the Athens Court (Duke, Hippolyte, Eggers, Philippines), the young lover (Helmer, the responder, Helena, Demetrius), the fairytale kingdom (Oberon, Titania, pack and small fairy) ); And workers (bottom, quince, flute, nose, star level, and perfect). William  · Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream William  · Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream has an infinite image of water and moon. Both images give a sense of calming women's temperament and mind. In classical myths, the image of the water is often associated with the goddess of Aphrodite, passion and love. Aphrodite was born in the sea bubble and was honored as a loyal wife of her husband Hephaestus (Grant 36). This may directly affect the infidelity of the four lovers in the forest, Hermia, Helena, Lysander, Demetrius.

How Does Communication Differ in Helping Relationships Essay

How Does Communication Differ in Helping Relationships - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that man is a social animal. With time, the definition of social life has changed to the extent that technology has taken over the minds and thinking of men and women whom we see around us. Every person in the urban society is addicted to web-based social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter, through which he can easily find new friends and social contacts who share common interests. Counseling is a society friendly word that is being used extensively these days. However, with different counseling and communication methodologies around, it can be tough to define their best applications. In fact, there are suitable methodologies which refute the traditional or conventional approach to setting things straight within the human mind. Trying new approaches will only help prune up the existing methodologies. Treating an alcoholic or a drug addict is strikingly different from psychological treatment meted out to suppressed teenagers with boy friend or family issues. If knowledge has to form the basis of all the counseling methodologies developed till now, then with our study of specific cases of depression and underperformance, we try to develop a new set of easy methodologies that can be applied to all cases of depression and counseling. It does not take much effort to make a man or woman smile, take control of the problems he or she is facing and install the conviction that the outcome is going to be all positive. This is precisely what psychological counselors need to do on a daily basis.

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Hip Hop and Race Portrayal in News Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Hip Hop and Race Portrayal in News - Essay Example The paper "Hip Hop and Race Portrayal in News" analyzes gender portrayal in hip hop and race portrayal in news. Hegemony in gender usually follows a pattern in which men indirectly dominate women in society. Through discourses perpetrated through various ways especially in the media, such positions appear ingrained in the society and unquestionable. Douglas explores the issue of hegemony arguing that there is meaning, context and representation of various sociological aspects with most of these being used to perpetrate hegemony. Dyer discusses the establishment of stereotypes in detail and explains that stereotypic images portrayed in media forms are widely believed and agreed upon as being right. As Douglas states, analysis of hegemony involves historical socio-cultural inquiries into how culture and various social institutions from the media have been used to facilitate domination on rather broad social and political ends. Thus, in order to determine whether the media’s powe r is increasing or decreasing, this discussion shall seek to establish hip hop’s perpetration of gender hegemony and the counter-efforts to break these hegemonic discourses based on a time series analysis. The hip hop genre is known to perpetrate gender hegemony and misogyny and has, in fact, come under heavy criticism for this in the past. Perpetration of gender hegemony in hip hop involves using lyrics and videos to portray women as sex objects, trivializing them, marginalizing them and using derogative terms to refer to them.

Reliability and Validity Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reliability and Validity Paper - Essay Example † and then proceeds with â€Å"How it will be measured?† (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009) A measurement is defined as ‘good’ if it fulfills the criteria of validity and reliability. Reliability: Reliability measures the extent to which the test yields consistent results each time it is conducted and across various situations and includes the following (Neukrug, 2008). Test-retest: This involves conducting the same scale or test to similar respondents at two different points in time (Neukrug, 2008). For example, a researcher interested in measuring the number of times an average adult worker falls sick within a year discovers that 68% of the population falls sick at least thrice. If this test is conducted again, under similar conditions, and it is discovered again that 68% of the population falls sick at least thrice a year, it indicates that the test is reliable. Split-half: Under this the researcher checks one half of the results of a test against the othe r half to check for internal consistency (Neukrug, 2008). For example, a researcher who has measured good quality of human services at a hospital in terms of four items ambience, proper equipment, quick procedure and trained staff can split the results by grouping the results of ambience and proper equipment together and quick procedure and trained staff together respectively and then check the Chronbach’s alpha for these two groups. ... If the results obtained through the two tests show high correlation, then the tests are considered to be reliable. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure; that is, the extent to which the test meets its objectives (Neukrug, 2008). The following are the types of validity: Face or content validity: This results from the consensus amongst experts that a scale logically appears to be reliable (Neukrug, 2008). For instance, questions such as â€Å"how many children do you have?† asked by a researcher regarding the effectiveness of family planning programs are generally assumed to stand up to face validity. Criterion Validity: If the measure correlates with another measure of the same construct then it is assumed to have criterion validity (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009). If the new measure is tested at the same time as the old measure and is shown to be valid it is known as concurrent validity and if the new measure is te sted at a later time and is shown to be valid then it is predictive validity (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009). For example, in tests reveal that the effectiveness of the prototype provide correct estimate of the effectiveness of the final medicine 80% of the time, then the test has predictive validity. If, however, the same correlation is established between the final medicine (after it’s manufactured) and its prototype at the same time, then it will have concurrent validity. Construct Validity: This refers to the extent to which the measure confirms a network of hypothesis based on a theory to which the concepts are related (Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2010). Convergent

The 1848 Revolution, the Second Reich, and the First World War Essay

The 1848 Revolution, the Second Reich, and the First World War - Essay Example In 1848 Europe saw a series of revolution starting from France and which later drew Germany in. Numerous groups were involved in the revolution that demanded the restoration of the old forms of administration, liberal constitution, economic freedom, and the nationalist demands for the consolidation of Germany. The pressure was being exerted by various different forces and each had a different objective. By 1849 all revolutionary endeavors had halted and during the 1850s the German economy grew as production of coal, iron and textile started. During the Wilhelmine period Germany saw a brisk industrialization. A series of changes occurring between 1871 and 1914, Germany transformed its role. Industrialization took place throughout as the population grew and economic instability rose. The working class people of Germany faced a transition from living in the countryside to dwelling in cities. During the â€Å"restoration† period, the German territories grew in regional power due t o improved power, enhancement in government, and centralization of state power. In particular Prussia grew stronger not only population wise but also territorially and economically. In terms of demographics it was now equivalent to Austria even though both had conservative regimes (Fulbrook, 105). With only slight variations, the social, economical and legal reforms still remained the same as they were in Napoleonic period. In the years following 1815 a number of student bodies were formed and after the reaction by conservatives on the murder of an anti-liberal playwright these bodies were disbanded (Fulbrook, 7). Liberals grew in power who wanted to limit the powers held by the rulers and wanted to establish a new establishment. Reforms in education resulted in an educational growth and hence a more educated workforce (Fulbrook, 109). Economic production, changes in the political groundwork, and socio-economic changes spurred political turbulence (Fulbrook, 114). Following a revolu tion in France various groups within Germany also revolted each having a different aim. The demands included restoration of the old estates, a liberal constitution, economic freedom, and unification of Germany. The liberals took advantage of the political upheaval to demand changes nationwide and the unification of Germany (Fulbrook, 117). In Austria the conservative government was replaced by liberals. In Prussia due to a misunderstanding of the king’s orders by the soldiers resulted in a fight. In order to avoid a civil war, the king himself wore revolutionary clothes and rode throughout Berlin. It was easy to demand for a unified Germany however it was difficult to define a border. By May 1849 the revolution had ended. The implications of the revolution were various including dissolution of a feudal system on lands and economical advancement. After the decline of the revolution, a conservative constitution was regained. Despite this a rapid economical progress took place i n Germany. With the start of production in coal, iron, and textile, more and more people started being employed into the workforce (Fulbrook, 122). Cultural unity was being promoted through festivals, contests, and other events. The spread of cultural and educational institutions encouraged cultural and educational progress particularly in science (Fulbrook, 123). In the 1871 â€Å"unification† of Germany was a result of the Prussian expansion and colonialism of non-Prussian lands. Bismarck organized the

Siemens case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Siemens - Case Study Example It is the commitment of companies, especially those that have a significant influence on the international market that ensures that efficiency is maintained. Efficiency is integral not only when it comes to using minimum resources to fulfill maximum needs, but is also pivotal when it comes to allocation of resources and their eventual distribution. In other words, the basic economic problem is seen to have its solutions within the confines of efficiency, and it is advantageous for the members of the world of commerce to ensure that the equilibrium of efficiency is maintained, both locally and internationally. Multinationals companies are seen as increasingly responsible for maintaining the equilibrium that would benefit all since their increased market share gives them greater influence in the arena of buying and selling. This is one reason why the use of bribes is heavily frowned upon by the international markets, especially when large multinational firms are involved. The use of br ibes is an act that disturbs the equilibrium of free trade, since they influence the decision power of individuals, prejudicing it to fall in the favor of the one offering bribes. Siemens, being one such multinational firm that possessed significant share of the global market was caught in the hurricane of media attention, international scrutiny and internal ratification policies when fraudulent actions were seen to be prevalent within the company. The Siemens executives were accused of paying six million Euros to another company in order to achieve the gas turbine contract in Italy. The accusation involved that the executives used the company funds to influence the decision of others. This accusation attracted the attention of the international media since it involved the transaction of such a large amount of money. Moreover, the reputation of one of the world’s largest companies was at stake. As a company that complies and abides by the restrictions and regulations of the f ree market, the bribe was seen as an act that harms the spirit of competition and free trade in the global market. Thus, Siemens was seen as the perpetual deviant of the global market. Subsequently, the fact that a multinational company such as Siemens is involved in financial embezzling had a negative impact on the brand. The executives accused of the embezzling were Andreas Kley and Horst Vigener. While they agreed that the transfer of six million Euros from Siemens to Enel did occur under their authorization, they defended their actions. These former managers said that their actions cannot be classified as an act of fraud since the financial transaction between Siemens and Enel was made solely and purely for the benefit of Siemens the company. They claimed that a bribe is an act that ensures personal gain, and signifies corruption that is intended to harm the company. However, their decision to transfer the amount to Enel was not for their own gain. Siemens would have gained imme nsely if the contract for the gas turbine had been awarded to them, and the managers were aware of this. The company hoped to earn 90 million Euros in addition to a firm footage in the Italian market. Thus, Siemens’ funds were not used to benefit anyone else, except Siemens the entity itself. Since neither employee benefitted personally from the funds transferred, both Kley and Vigener testified that they were innocent. The defenses they presented were to an extent

The 1848 Revolution, the Second Reich, and the First World War Essay

The 1848 Revolution, the Second Reich, and the First World War - Essay Example In 1848 Europe saw a series of revolution starting from France and which later drew Germany in. Numerous groups were involved in the revolution that demanded the restoration of the old forms of administration, liberal constitution, economic freedom, and the nationalist demands for the consolidation of Germany. The pressure was being exerted by various different forces and each had a different objective. By 1849 all revolutionary endeavors had halted and during the 1850s the German economy grew as production of coal, iron and textile started. During the Wilhelmine period Germany saw a brisk industrialization. A series of changes occurring between 1871 and 1914, Germany transformed its role. Industrialization took place throughout as the population grew and economic instability rose. The working class people of Germany faced a transition from living in the countryside to dwelling in cities. During the â€Å"restoration† period, the German territories grew in regional power due t o improved power, enhancement in government, and centralization of state power. In particular Prussia grew stronger not only population wise but also territorially and economically. In terms of demographics it was now equivalent to Austria even though both had conservative regimes (Fulbrook, 105). With only slight variations, the social, economical and legal reforms still remained the same as they were in Napoleonic period. In the years following 1815 a number of student bodies were formed and after the reaction by conservatives on the murder of an anti-liberal playwright these bodies were disbanded (Fulbrook, 7). Liberals grew in power who wanted to limit the powers held by the rulers and wanted to establish a new establishment. Reforms in education resulted in an educational growth and hence a more educated workforce (Fulbrook, 109). Economic production, changes in the political groundwork, and socio-economic changes spurred political turbulence (Fulbrook, 114). Following a revolu tion in France various groups within Germany also revolted each having a different aim. The demands included restoration of the old estates, a liberal constitution, economic freedom, and unification of Germany. The liberals took advantage of the political upheaval to demand changes nationwide and the unification of Germany (Fulbrook, 117). In Austria the conservative government was replaced by liberals. In Prussia due to a misunderstanding of the king’s orders by the soldiers resulted in a fight. In order to avoid a civil war, the king himself wore revolutionary clothes and rode throughout Berlin. It was easy to demand for a unified Germany however it was difficult to define a border. By May 1849 the revolution had ended. The implications of the revolution were various including dissolution of a feudal system on lands and economical advancement. After the decline of the revolution, a conservative constitution was regained. Despite this a rapid economical progress took place i n Germany. With the start of production in coal, iron, and textile, more and more people started being employed into the workforce (Fulbrook, 122). Cultural unity was being promoted through festivals, contests, and other events. The spread of cultural and educational institutions encouraged cultural and educational progress particularly in science (Fulbrook, 123). In the 1871 â€Å"unification† of Germany was a result of the Prussian expansion and colonialism of non-Prussian lands. Bismarck organized the

A Christmas Carol Essay Example for Free

A Christmas Carol Essay His room has undergone a transformation which is symbolic of Scrooges attitude changing dramatically towards goodness. Dickens uses colour to explore the detail in the room. The walls and ceiling were so hung with living green, that it looked a perfect grove; from every part of which, bright gleaming berries glistened. The crisp leaves of holly, mistletoe and ivy reflected back the light. This also resembles the goodness of Christmas as Christmas items are commented upon. On the floor then appears a kind of throne, there were turkeys, geese, game, poultry, brawn, great joints of meat. This represents richness and also creates setting. The description of the ghost reinforces the goodness of his character: free as its genial face, its sparkling eye, its open hand, its cheery voice. This is what Scrooge should become. As Scrooge speaks to the spirit he realises how he is changing his attitude towards goodness. I learnt a lesson which is working now. To-night, if you have aught to teach me, let me profit by it. Dickens uses the senses to make the description rich which is in contrast to the poverty we next visit. that peoples mouths might water gratis as they passed; there were piles of filberts, mossy and brown, re-calling, in their fragrance. innumerable people, carrying their dinners to the bakers shop. The sight of the poor revellers appeared to interest the spirit very much. In this stave the weather is in direct contrast to the stave before. Dickens makes such rich contrast in the setting to address the theme of goodness and also to create the mood of what is to come. In this stave the weather has changed as it is an urban setting and murky and grim. The sky was gloomy, and the shortest streets were choked up with a dingy mist. Whereas in the stave before the weather was bright with clear skies and a rural setting. The darkness and the mist had vanished with it, for it was a clear, cold, wintry day with snow upon the ground. Dickens does not limit harshness to the urban setting. they stood upon a bleak and desert moor, where monstrous masses of rude stone were cast about. This resembles the background to the poverty Scrooge sees. Dickens also uses personification again to create character instead of setting. Fat chestnuts are like fat men and onions are like Spanish friars, providing a cheerful background to the bustle of Christmas. In Stave four we meet the last of the spirits, the spirit of the future. It is evident that Scrooges attitude towards goodness is changing as Scrooge waits for the spirit to show guidance to make him a better person. But as I know your purpose is to do me good, and as I hope to live to be another man from what I was, I am prepared to bear you company, and do it with a thankful heart. Will you not speak to me? The spirit then takes them both to a dark urban setting to explore Scrooges future. They scarcely seemed to enter the city; for the city rather seemed to spring up about them. We then hear Scrooges business associates talking. They are described as ugly and unpleasant characters which resemble what Scrooge was like. No, said a great fat man with the monstrous chin. As Scrooge hears the business men talk about his death he realises how no one cares about his death and becomes hurt. This pleasantry was received with a general laugh. Its likely to be a very cheap funeral. Scrooge demands to be taken to where someone cares. The spirit then takes them to the Crachits household where the family are unusually quiet as they grieve over the unexpected death of Tiny Tim, and not Scrooge. Quiet. Very quiet. The noisy little Crachits were still as statues in one corner. Ah, poor Tiny Tim! Scrooge feels guilty about his death and feels sympathetic. The spirit finally takes Scrooge to a dark graveyard and his gravestone which reinforces what Scrooge will become if he does not change. There he breaks down into complete grief and says how he has learnt his lesson and he is a changed man and how he knows how his responsibility to society has a great importance. I will honour Christmas in my heart, and try to keep it all the year. I will live in the Past, Present and Future. The spirits of all three shall strive within me. I will not shut out the lesson that they teach. This is similar to J. B. Priestleys An Inspector Calls as the theme that runs throughout the play is Responsibility to Society. Interestingly it also resembles the play in the way time is changed The final Stave contrasts sharply with the first Stave as both Character and Setting have dramatically changed. The setting in the first stave was cold and bleak but here there is No fog, no mist, clear, bright, jovial, stirring cold; cold piping for the blood to dance to; Golden sunlight; Heavenly sky. This is symbolic of Scrooges character as he has dramatically changed from the start when he was a tight and mean man. Throughout the novel Scrooge has changed his attitude and developed goodness. He has learnt a lesson from the three spirits, each changing him bit by bit. It is evident as in each Stave he slightly changes his attitude. This is also reflected in the setting as each Stave explores the theme of goodness.

The Disability Representation In The Media

The Disability Representation In The Media My personal reasons for choosing this dissertation topic stem from an interest in how media representations shape the attitudes of wider society. I feel it is important to note that I am writing as a non-disabled student with the view that disability studies and research should not just be the interests of disabled people. Issues of inequality and social injustice need to be considered by all members of society, while ensuring that the views, definitions and experiences of the particular group remain central to the discussion. It has been made apparent that the voices of disabled people have been absent from discussion because of the assumption that they need others to speak them and decide on their needs (Barton, 1993). Dominant views of disability dictate that it is a personal problem of the individual, based on biological impairment. However, I strongly advocate a social model of disability which emphasises that oppression and discrimination by society is the cause of experiences of disability. I plan to make this my main approach in writing my dissertation. Barton (1996, pg. 5) describes disability studies within the field of Sociology as an emancipatory project and argues that the fundamental question we must ask ourselves is whether the sociological imagination contributes to the benefit of disabled people (original emphasis) I believe that any research which aims to illuminate the prejudices implicit in cultural representations of disability, are necessary pursuits and it is vital to seriously consider the reasoning behind research projects as well as the ultimate impact they are aimed to have on particular groups. There has been many publications regarding disability and media representation in recent times which highlights that disability, impairment and disabled people are being frequently misrepresented in the mass media. Research has also suggested that such media representations have an alarming affect on the attitudes of the public. This issue can be divided into three key areas, the use of disability stereotypes, the use of specific language and images of disability and the under-representation of people with impairments working within the mass media. Pressures from disabled activists and legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 2005 have brought this issue onto the agenda and worked to improve the rights of disabled people. An increasing awareness of the issues has resulted. However, the extent of this awareness is debatable as there is still much work to be done in tackling the negative and disempowering portrayals within the media and the current views of society. It is clear that the media has not made sufficient changes and therefore this issue remains extremely relevant. My aim is to explore the representations of disabled people to see whether any changes have been made. 1.3.3 Can Disability be represented positively? It is safe to say that the majority of media depictions of Disability and impairment are incorrect and exclude people with impairments from participation within media production. During my search for literature on the issue of disability and the media, I found that a substantial amount of studies were very critical of the media and focus only on negative stereotypical portrayals with an inclusion of recommendations for their demise. An example which I plan to use in my literature review chapter is Barnes (1992) disabling imagery and the media which ambitiously attempts to deal with all aspects of the media in misrepresenting disability. Despite such an extensive collection of studies in this area, there is very little literature which focuses on the representation of disability by disabled people themselves. It could be argued that there are not enough media sources which involve disabled people of which to analyse. However very recently I am pleasantly surprised to see that there ar e a few emerging. Notable examples include the Channel 4 mockumentary Cast Offs in which six characters with different impairments live together on an island. The show highlights many disability issues and challenges stereotypes of disability. Themes include sexuality, disabled identity and the exclusion of disabled actors and actresses from television (Wilde, 2009). Other media sources which feature disabled people include, Britains Missing Top Model and Dancing on Wheels. Although this is a step in the right direction, the inclusion of individuals with impairments on TV has been restricted mainly to reality TV which offers little insight into the lives of disabled people; instead they are centred on strength and achievement despite the individuals impairment rather than a celebration of disabled identities. The new American musical drama Glee has considered disability issues within its plot lines, this included the use of wheel chairs during a performance in order to educate the a ble-bodied performers on the importance of considering the needs of wheel chair user Artie and the difficulty in getting around the high school from his perspective because of the lack of ramps and accessible doors. Unfortunately however, the character of Artie is played by a non-wheel chair user and so any positive aspects of disability representation in the show are practically reversed by the exclusion of disabled actors and actresses from participating. 1.3.4 The Sun and Ouch! I wanted to choose two online sources for my study which were imposing in terms of disability representation and portrayal. Tabloid newspapers are notorious for depicting various groups inaccurately and producing sensationalised media in order to sell newspapers. The Sun is a daily tabloid newspaper which is among the highest in circulation in the world (The Newspaper Marketing Agency, 2010). The use of disablist language is common in tabloid newspapers and often in the broadsheets too. Reports regularly provide distorted representations of the experience of disability and focus on stereotypical assumptions (Barnes, 1991). This topic will be expanded further in chapter three. I chose The Sun because of its popularity in the UK and because tabloid news is a major source of information for the general public, I will be using articles from The Sun online website. After selecting a tabloid source for my study I began searching for an online source which involved the self-representation o f disabled people, I dismissed many websites because they were charity based, political in nature, or simply provided information and advice for disabled people without necessarily being based on the views and experiences of this group. Examples of websites I considered include Radar and Disability Now. I chose Ouch! because it is not centred on disability politics and aims to reflect the lives and experiences of disabled people (See Ouch! 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/about.shtml). The website consists of articles, blogs, podcasts as well as other features. The writers and contributors are not concerned with political correctness but seek to offer insights into the topics that are important to disabled people and those with a stakehold in disability such as family and friends. To ensure that representations and portrayals of disability are suitable, the Ouch! team are disabled themselves. My first impressions of the website and its content were that it is very humour based and do es not take itself too seriously. It is friendly, accessible and taps into the ordinary, everyday experiences of disability. This is why I decided it would be a suitable source for comparison with a more mainstream media source. 1.4 Structuring my Dissertation My dissertation will consist of six key sections. The first is my introduction which will outline the topic of study, along with my reasons for choosing it and my aims. Chapter two will historicise disability using the work of Barnes (1991, 1996, and 1997). Chapter three will discuss the existing literature which relates to my topic, this will include studies of media representation and disability, a discussion of the political models of disability and the key terms involved in the debate. In chapter four I will discuss my methods of research, including how I selected my sources and an examination of the strengths and weaknesses of my chosen method of content analysis. I will also consider any ethical implications of the study in this chapter. Chapter five will be my most important section, in this I will present and discuss my findings. The final chapter (chapter six) will be focused on my concluding the study. It will relate my findings to the objectives presented in the introducti on and the issues raised in my literature review. It will also include a reflection of my chosen methodology and a summary of the dissertation. 2.0 The History of Disability In order to understand the representations and societal perceptions of disability today, it is necessary to study a history of Disability. The attitudes and practices of the past have a vital influence on present day beliefs. Barnes (1997) argues that the lives of Disabled people in history have been overlooked in favour of an emphasis on medical perspectives and it is clear that many disabled people experience exclusion from mainstream society. This is evident in such areas as employment, in which 45% of disabled people of working age are excluded from. It has been found also that disabled people tend to have lower earnings, with disabled men earning on average  £1.50 less per hour than non-disabled men (Hyde, 2001). As a result, many disabled people live in poverty or are at risk of poverty. Discrimination can also be seen within the education system welfare, housing, leisure and environment and planning. The evidence that disabled people experience sever economic deprivation and social disadvantage is overwhelming and no longer in dispute, whether it be from the governments own commissioned research, from research institutes and academics or from disabled people themselves. (Oliver, 2003, pg. 312). Historically, people with impairments have long been oppressed and marginalised. Hostile treatment, pity and ignorance are common disabling experiences. Barnes (1997 and 1991) claims that perceptions of disability are rooted in ancient Greek and Roman history, he discusses how the cultures of the western world are based on the achievements of the ancient Greeks who built their existence on slavery. Greek society was extremely violent, male dominated and prone to war. They had a strong value for physical and mental strength and any weaknesses and flaws were not tolerated. Such a concern for perfection meant that the infanticide of sick and disabled children was very common. In Greek philosophy, the gods and goddesses were idealised representations of perfect humanity (Dutton cited in Barnes, 1997, pg 13). The only god who was physically imperfect was Hephaestus, this Greek God was rejected by his parents because of his grotesque appearance and labelled a cripple by his wife Aphrodite who committed adultery with a more aesthetically pleasing lover. This mythology is significant as it is a clear source of the links made between impairment and sexuality today as many of us assume that disabled people are unable or do not want to have a sex life. When the Romans conquered Greece and expanded their empire, the values of strength, individualism and able-bodiedness were inherited with it. The Romans also advocated the infanticide of weak children and ridiculed people who acquired impairment during their life course. Many roman games involved using individuals with impairment as comedy acts for the amusement of others. Although both the Greeks and Romans attempted to develop treatments for impairments, they were reserved mainly for those with power and wealth (Garland, 1995). Another foundation of our thoughts and beliefs of disability can be found in the western religions of Christianity and Judaism. Religion in ancient societies viewed disability as anti-religious and a reflection of sin or immoral behaviour. Barnes cites many references from religious texts which imply that impairment is a consequence of bad behaviour. For example, in Deuteronomy (27-27) it states that immorality will be punished by blindness. In contrast to Greek and roman society, the Jewish faith opposed infanticide and encouraged its members to care for the less fortunate this is also a feature of subsequent religions stemming from the Judaism, such as Islam and Christianity. People with impairments were accepted by the community, but as objects of neediness and charity. This was a key feature of Christianity. Consequently, they were viewed only in terms of their impairment and treated as incomplete human beings in need of sympathy (Barnes, 1997). During the Middle Ages disability was associated with evil and superstition and people with impairments were treated with extreme hostility. Children born with impairments were believed to of been sent by the devil as a result of parents involvement in witchcraft and other black arts. This association with evil was very strongly held in Britain during this time and was reflected in art and literature, Shakespeares Richard III is a good illustration of this, Richard is portrayed as physically and mentally deformed despite having no physical impairment. He is destined to only be successful as a villain which perpetuates the negative stereotype of impairment and evil. Just as in the ancient world, disabled people were ridiculed during the middle ages in many forms. Analyses of joke books from this time reveal that impairments such as insanity and idiocy were used as sources of humour. Many individuals with visible impairments were displayed as objects of entertainment (Barnes, 1997). The 18th and 19th century saw the transition from agricultural subsistence to factory production during the industrial revolution and urbanisation process. This brought with it a decline in religious authority and the growth of science and rationality. The development of utilitarian philosophy which emphasised the importance of pleasing the majority at the expense of minority groups created a new found value for individuality and progress. These developments provided justification for the beliefs and practices of the past and can be cited as a starting point for the disability issues which are visible today. These include the development and prioritisation of a medical model of Disability, in which the body and impairment are viewed in individualistic terms rather than social, cultural and political. The institutional prejudice and discrimination of people with impairments in everyday social life is a second issue of Disability theorists. The popularity of eugenic ideas during the mi d twentieth century and the murder of thousands of disabled people, as well as other oppressed minority groups during the second world war is another significant point in modern history and many scientists still advocate Social Darwinist ideals and view human imperfections (both physical and mental) as a societal threat, a threat that needs to be eradicated (Barnes, 1996). The rise of the disability movement in the 1960s saw the development of the Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS), the establishment of such organisations and the activism of disabled people resulted in a re-classification of disability as distinct from impairment and social in nature as opposed to medical (Barnes, 1997). Disability became defined as the disadvantages caused by social institutions and environments which effectively exclude people from participation (UPIAS, 1976). This was later adapted by other organisations such as the British Council of Disabled People (BCODP) and the Disabled Peoples International (DPI) (Barnes, 1997). Eventually, this new understanding of disability became known as the Social Model of Disability (Oliver, 1996a). Disability theory will be discussed further in my literature review (Chapter 3) with an analysis of both the medical and social models of Disability. 3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Disability and Impairment: Key terms in the debate Disability is difficult to conceptualise because of its multi-dimensional and complex nature. The term can be used in many different contexts and from different perspectives which means there is little consensus on its definition (Altman, 2001). Classifications associated with a medical model of disability are based on a distinction between impairment disability and handicap impairment is defined as functional limitations to do with the body, disability is when an individual cannot function normally because if this impairment, and handicap refers to an inability to participate in social life (Oliver, 1990). The main problem with such classifications is that the individual impairment is considered to be the most important factor and reinforces an individual definition in which functional limitations predominate. Thus, disability is viewed in terms of an individuals personal inability to function (Barton, 1993 pg. 237). This model has had a powerful influence in shaping not just social policy, but societal attitudes and behavior. In reality, many disabled people have rejected this understanding of disability. Instead disability refers to failures in the structural environment to meet the needs of all individuals. The Disabled Peoples International (1981) put forward the following definition which better fits the views of disabled people. Impairment is the functional limitation within the individual caused by physical, mental or sensory impairment. Disability is the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers. In relation to my content analysis research, I will be looking to identify how disability is conceptualised and the type of language used both in The Sun and Ouch! 3.3 The Language of Disability The first and most important thing to remember about discussions of language and disability is that they arise because disabled people experience discrimination daily and are denied the same rights and opportunities as the rest of the population. Apart from the fact that words can be deeply hurtful to disabled individuals, they have power and are used extensively to justify oppression (Barnes, 1993, pg 8). The power of language is a significant topic of discussion in the area of disability studies. While we assume that the primary purpose of language is to aid communication, Oliver (1994, pg. 4) argues that it is also about politics, domination and control and I am inclined to agree. The development of language is not based on consensus of meaning but rather through the ability of some groups to force their meaning and understanding of others. This form of cultural domination is visible in many forms, the imposition of the spoken word on deaf people and sexist language directed at women are both suitable examples (Oliver, 1989, pg.1). The misconceptions that society has of disability are caused as well reinforced by the use of disablist language. Many of the abusive terms directed at disabled people are well circulated and familiar to most of the population. moron cripple spastic idiot mong dwarf midget lunatic the list is endless (Clark and Marsh, 2002). This kind of terminology has t he power to promote prejudice and discrimination against disabled people. As mentioned in the previous section (3.2) the DPI re-defined impairment and disability in line with the reality that disability is rooted in social injustice. This means that the language used by both the media and wider society ought to reflect a social model of disability in which society discriminates against those who do not conform to the ideals of an able-bodied society. Disablist language such as the disabled or people with disabilities are unacceptable yet commonly used by the press and the population generally. Individuals do not have disabilities, they have impairments. Phrases such as the disabled objectify the individual and impose a particular label on their identity which is based solely on their impairment. Disabled people as opposed to people with disabilities is more appropriate as it implies that the disability belongs to society, whereas the latter makes it the property of the person (Barne s, 1991 and 1992). Within the British press, the aforementioned terms, particularly cripple and handicap are used regularly. This is usually within a sentimental and patronising context. For example stories in which disabled individuals display bravery despite of their disability or handicap or instances where individuals have made personal scarifies to help a disabled individual or group. These generally involve the use of emotive language, such as wheelchair bound afflicted sufferer victim and so on (Barnes, 1991). To summarise, much of the language that is used in discussions of disability are based on an individualistic/medical understanding of the nature of disability. They are not developed from the experiences of disabled people, but rather from the perceptions of others. While conducting my study I will be interested to see which kinds of terminology and language are used in the newspaper articles from my sample. 3.4 Disability Theory: the Medical model and the Social model The medical model of disability has formed the basis of commonsense assumptions and beliefs about the nature of disability. This perspective focuses on the individual and his or her impairment. It imposes a presumption of biological or physiological inferiority upon disabled persons (Hahn, 1985). Medical views attribute physical and intellectual impairments as constituting disability, while denying its social and political nature. Oliver (1983 and 1996a) prefers the term individual model and argues that medicalisation is one element of this, along with psychological aspects. Medical accounts amount to a personal tragedy theory of disability (Oliver, 1990 and Finkelstein, 1980) in which disability simply happens to individuals and is personal to them, it implies that any difficulties are a direct result of impairments (Finkelstein, 1993) this forms the basis of everyday beliefs. In terms of rehabilitation, emphasis has been placed on functional limitations of an individual and attempt s to find ways of preventing, curing or (failing these) caring for disabled people (Marks cited in Williams, 2001 pg 125). As mentioned throughout this dissertation, this way of understanding disability has been heavily criticised by disabled people and disability has been re-conceptualised as a social and political problem through the work of disabled groups in the 1960s (Barnes, 1997). Disability theory has roughly been divided into American and British contributions. I will briefly outline the work of American sociologists, however I am more concerned with the work of British authors as it better relates to my dissertation and its theoretical standpoint. American writers during the 1960s challenged the idea that individual medical conditions or impairments were the cause of disability. Goffman (1963) discuses the role of stigma in spoiling (pg. 15) a persons social identity, one of the forms of stigma he identifies derives from physical abnormalities. He also identifies that disability is socially constructed and concludes that the attitudes of professional contributes to experiences of disability. St one (cited in Barnes, 1997) argues that the social construction of disability is based on the power of the sate in restricting welfare to those who require it. The importance of work and production in industrialised society has meant that those who are unable to participate are in need of assistance from the state, who along with medical professionals, are able to define disability as an individual problem and determine the level of access to welfare and other state services. Other writers, notably Albrecht (cited in Barnes, 1997) point out that disability has been controlled and transformed into commercial enterprise (pg. 6) he claims that societies produce different forms of illness, impairment and disability. The ways in which these are interpreted is dependent on economic factors he argues. American functionalist/interactionist accounts of disability are derivative of Parsonian ideas and focus on the role of being sick which is expected of disabled people and considered to be a form of deviance (Oliver, 1996b). The liberal values that exist in an industrial (and post- industrial) society place importance on personal responsibility and a strong work ethic, deviancy is created when an individual is unable to conform to these ideals. Writers have also argued that people with impairments are dependent on medical professionals who assist in the psychological accommodation of a disabled identity (pg. 21) and provide rehabilitation. The main criticisms made of the American tradition are that they over look the significance of social and economic factors central to experiences of disability. They also fail to take into account the perspectives of disabled people themselves, both these points form the main focus of British writers which I will turn to next. British theorists have been much more critical in their assessments of disability and have explicitly expressed their arguments about the oppression, prejudice and discrimination that many disabled people encounter on a routine basis. A number of writers have approached disability in society through a materialist or Marxist analysis, focusing on economic and political factors. Others have highlighted the importance of the subjective experiences of disability and the role of culture. References have been made to the importance of gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality and other social factors which shape individual understandings of disability (Barnes, 1997). Theorists who use a materialist framework claim that oppression is caused by economic structures. The lives of disabled people have little value in a capitalist society as they are deemed unable to contribute to economic and social life (Riddell, 1996). Finkelstein (1980) identifies three phases in history with regard to societal re action to impairment . In the first, pre-industrial phase people with impairments were not excluded from economic life and the notion of disability did not exist. This was because work was subsistence based and aimed at providing basic food and amenities for survival. Communities needed all the labour they could get from its members (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). The second phase was that of industrial capitalism during the 19th century, both Oliver (1990) and Finkelstein (1980) argue that during this time Disability developed along side capitalist production and free market enterprise. The rise of factory production and the intense levels of speed and control involved meant that disabled workers were not welcome in the work place. Processes of urbanisation created fragmented communities and weakened family networks. The growth of towns and cities to house the work force were geographically and structurally inadequate for disabled people and contributed to their segregation from wider s ociety and the introduction of residential institutions (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). For Finkelstein, it was at this point that people with impairments became a distinctly oppressed group, he argues that in phase the use of technology and the activism of disabled people will end oppression and disability will cease to be viewed in individualistic or medical terms (Barnes, 1997). Perhaps the growth of the internet and websites like BBC Ouch! mark the beginning of this phase. Oliver (1990) also discusses capitalism and disability, he applies Marxist ideas about the power of ideology to argue that the values which form the basis of social practice and culture conceptualised disability as a personal tragedy and aided the development of the individual model. Critics of Finkelstein and Olivers materialist analyses of disability argue that they over look the individual experiences of disability, rather than treat disabled people as a homogenous group. The social model needs to be reconceptualised with this in mind and from a postmodernist perspective which recognises diversity (Shakespeare, 1994, Morris, 1991, Crow, 1992). These writers discuss the prejudiced attitudes towards disabled people through culture, as material explanations fall short in explaining why discrimination exists and how disablist culture produces it. *incomplete* 3.5 Media representation of Disability and effects on the audience The stereotypical portrayal of disabled people within popular culture is one of the most significant factors contributing to the discrimination of disabled people. Hunt (1966) argues that disabled people represent an other in society and pose a threat to the able-bodied values entrenched in its structure. He describes this threat as being divided into five forms, as unfortunate, useless, different, oppressed and sick (pg. 146). Disabled people are considered unfortunate because of the belief that they are unable to lead a full life. They are useless because they cannot contribute economically, different because they do not conform to normal expectations of a human being and marked out as members of a minority group (pg. 150). Finally, they are oppressed and sick because they do not fit in, for the able-bodied, normal world we are representations of many of the things they most fear- tragedy, loss, dark and the unknown contact with us throws up in peoples faces the fact of sickness an d death in the world (pg. 155-156). Hunts arguments about the way disability is understood in western culture are applicable today in studying the misconceptions which are reproduced by the media. As discussed in Chapter Two, such misconceptions stem from the beliefs and practices of the past and have become firmly ingrained within society. Disablist attitudes become normalised through a process of social learning (Barnes, 1991) however, the extent and nature of this process is open to debate and many argue that there is no real way of knowing how he media influences perception. There have been many studies which have investigated the cultural portrayals of disability, some examples follow. 3.5.1 Disabling imagery and the media by Colin Barnes. The focus of this study is the portrayal of disabled people in the media and its stereotypical nature. Using secondary data from the content analysis studies of various organizations, Barnes (1992) identifies several stereotypes of disabled people produced within the media. These are: the disabled person as pitiable and pathetic as an object of violence as sinister and evil as atmosphere or curio as super cripple as an object of ridicule as their own worst enemy as a burden as sexually abnormal , as incapable of participating in community life and as normal (Barnes, 1992, pg 3). Rather than focus on particular aspects of the media, Barnes chose to study all aspects of the media, including the press, radio, television, books and so on. He argues that media depictions of disability contribute to experiences of discrimination in a significant way. He goes on to reiterate that the poverty experienced by disabled people cannot be explained by the traditional model which suggests individua l physical or intellectual limitations to be the root cause. It is caused by reactive environments and disabling barriers. Thus disability refers to a complex system of social constraints imposed on disabled people by a highly discriminatory society (Barnes, 1992, pg. 5). As mentioned in Chapter T7wo, stereotypical assumptions about disability stem from the beliefs and practices of earlier times, they are embedded in the very structure of society and are expressed in all institutions- ed